“This process results in a curious variety of polarization. Few people love their party and think it represents their interests well. Nevertheless, we increasingly hate the other option, and this is enough to keep us in our respective camps. And the more exasperated we become with our parties, the more we demonize the other side.

Using survey data over multiple election cycles, Groenendyk showed that decreasing fondness among partisans for their own parties was associated with growing hostility toward the opposition party. “